Unlocking the Potential of Salmon for Canine Nutrition
Unlocking the potential for achievement of the UN Sustainable Development Goal 2 Zero Hunger in Africa: targets, strategies, synergies and challenges
An important recognition underlying the SDGs is that all the 17 goals are interrelated, in what is commonly known as a synergistic relationship. Thus, success in one goal affects the attainment of others, including SDG 2 Zero Hunger. For example, SDG 1 No Poverty has impact on the Zero Hunger target since being poor negatively impacts the capacity of individuals to access adequate food both in quality and in quantity (22). Synergy between SDG 3 Good Health and Well-Being and SDG 2 is through the fact that good health is closely linked to nutrition, with good health relying on sufficient and adequate macro- and micronutrient intake. Furthermore, access to quality health care is necessary to prevent and treat diseases that may increase nutrient needs through increased catabolism and malabsorption. Furthermore, SDG 3 Good Health and Well-being includes family planning and reproductive health that is important to ensure manageable family size, which is less prone to food insecurity and improved child nutritional status (23). SDG 4 on Quality Education relies on the achievement of Zero Hunger since food is needed to facilitate learning and cognitive development. In the long-term perspective, quality education and learning enable individuals and societies to develop. In many countries, school meals are an important source of daily nutrition and good health promotion (24). In fact, a quality education should include a curriculum involving food, nutrition, and agricultural food production, targets within SDG 2. SDG 5 Gender Equality is important to achieve Zero Hunger since women with access to income typically improve the childrens nutrition and health (22). SDG 6 Clean Water and Sanitation is a prerequisite for good health through avoidance of enteric infections. In fact, not having access to safe water impacts other parts of daily life activities, including nutrition. For example, lack of clean water for drinking and to prepare food increases the vulnerability to infections and sickness, which in turn affects nutritional status (25). SDG 8 Decent Work and Economic Growth is related to the Zero Hunger target since countries with high rates of malnutrition and food insecurity may have a high loss of gross domestic product (26). SDG 13 Climate Action is of major importance, especially to some of Africas most vulnerable societies, since climate change increases droughts, floods, and other extreme weather events, with detrimental effects on food production (27). SDG 14 Life Below Water and SDG 15 Life on Land relate to loss of biodiversity, acidification of the oceans, and soil degradation, which threaten the ability to produce food (22). SDG 16 Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions is critical to ensure Zero Hunger as instability, war, and bad governance are among the major contributors of food and nutritional insecurity. SDG 17 Partnerships for the Goals pinpoints the necessity for strong global collaboration to achieve the goals, including SDG 2 Zero Hunger (22).
Challenges to achieve SDG 2 in Africa
Several challenges are slowing down the progress to achieve the desired targets, which are discussed next.
State fragility
Conflicts, wars, and insurgencies have affected many African countries, resulting in several conflict events at one time or another, rendering many hungry and food insecure. For example, in 2017, the South-Sudan war caused 42% of its population to face severe food insecurity (28, 29). Somalia, South Sudan, Chad, and the Democratic Republic of Congo, known for protracted crises, have very high child undernourishment and under-five mortality rates compared to stable nations in Africa (29).
Poor governance and corruption
In Africa, poor governance by far has hampered the progress of food security in many nations. Governance is a key priority action area to mitigate food insecurity in terms of building and enabling policies and regulatory frameworks to enhance increased coordination of agricultural, climate change, and food system policies (30). Due to poor governance, policy, and coordination of national agricultural policies, strategies, investment plans, and climate change instruments, including national adaptation programs, are lacking in many food insecure African countries (30).
Poor governance and corruption, specifically the lack of democracy in food and agriculture, widen the already yawning gap between the have and have-nots in many African countries. Thus, no initiative on food security will work in the absence of ethical public behavior because of corruption and poor governance culture (31). Increased reported corruption in the import and distribution of agricultural inputs by government agencies in African countries delays the end to hunger goals (31).
Climate change
Climate shocks, as evidenced by the increasingly more frequent occurrences of cyclones and droughts, have affected the most vulnerable populations in Africa through devastating effects on their food and nutrition security. The estimated numbers of droughts and floods have increased, respectively, from 89,256,000 and 5,583,000 between 1980 and 1989 to 158,509,000 and 23,332,000 between 2000 and 2009 (32). Regrettably, greenhouse gas emissions, attributed mostly to the industrialized Western World, are linked to adverse climate changes, causing food insecurity for the poorest people in the global south hardest, mostly in LMICs (16). Water shortages are the most concerning aspect of climate change in Africa. Already, in parts of the Sahel region such as Mali, desertification is reducing available croplands (8). Furthermore, climate change affects local biodiversity and may contribute to new invading alien species affecting local food production. This is currently a large problem with a locust invasion in Eastern Africa that threatens to eradicate crucial harvests from the local small-scale farmers (33). A predictive model on climate change including possible determinants projects a 20% increase in child malnutrition by 2050, and a 50% decrease in crop yields in many sub-Saharan countries (32). Unfortunately, this model mentions that by 2080s, arid and semi-arid land in Africa will have increased by 58%, leading to significant reduction in rain-fed land for cereal production. Thus, the success of the SDG 13 Climate Action and the Paris Climate Accord (target of staying below 2C warming) and the future temperature trajectory will be of major importance to food security on the African continent. Furthermore, increased competition for key resources, such as fertile land and clean water, contributes to provoking violence and armed conflicts, exacerbating the vicious circle of hunger and poverty and resulting in protracted crises.
Natural resource mismanagement
Mismanagement of natural resources, such as water, largely contributes to food insecurity and inefficacy of food production practices. African countries that have prioritized good practices and technologies utilizing efficiency in water use and management have promoted their food productivity gains, as evidenced by outcomes of research and development (R&D) investments. African countries that have made significant investments in agricultural R&D continue to reap food productivity and security gains for their population. For example, Namibia, largely a desert country, utilizes the available water resources to enhance food production by having a system of responsive and accountable governance (34).
The role of forests for food security, nutrition, and the challenge of forest mismanagement
In 2017, the High Level Panel of Experts of the UN Committee on World Food Security emphasised that sustainable forest management is important to maintain and enhance the economic, social, and environmental values of all types of forests (35). This is important in the strive toward Zero Hunger since deforestation is a critical sustainable development challenge, as increasing food production to meet growing demand has strikingly reduced tropical forests. This is especially true in sub-Saharan Africa that continues to face serious food insecurity issues because smallholder farming is the main driver of forest reduction (36). During the period between 2001 and 2015, 92% loss of land area covered by forests in Africa was attributable to expansion of smallholder farming (37). For example, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon have reported increasing deforestation associated with high levels of poverty and food insecurity (38). Annually, about 13 million hectares of forests are lost due to deforestation, partly by agriculture, logging, mining, and infrastructure development. Deforestation is a significant factor in promoting climate change through increased emission of greenhouse gases, thus altering temperature and weather patterns globally (27, 39).
Fisheries and aquaculture
Fisheries and aquaculture have often been arbitrarily separated from other parts of the food and agricultural systems in food security studies, debates, and policymaking. Small-scale fisheries in sub-Saharan Africa are threatened by overfishing, pollution, and competition for water which is a potential threat to their sustainability. The significant development of aquaculture raises many questions about its environmental impacts on land, water, and biodiversity, as well as sustainability, and has itself to face competition from other users of land (40). However, the demand for fish is growing due to a combination of factors such as population growth, urbanization, and increasing wealth and incomes. Aquaculture is one of the few food production sectors worldwide where growth in production is outpacing growth in population. Small-scale fisheries can give opportunities to the poorest, landless, food-insecure people and households, providing them a critical (and sometimes unique) source of income and livelihood. Intake of fish can help reduce the risks of malnutrition and of non-communicable diseases. Farmed fish contribute to improved nutritional status of households, directly through self-consumption, and indirectly through selling farmed fish to enhance household purchasing power. Notably, there is almost a consensus that womens roles in aquaculture and fisheries are not fully recognized, often go unrecorded, are undervalued, and are largely invisible in national statistics (41). Thus, given the importance of small-scale fisheries and aquaculture in poverty alleviation, food security, and nutrition in sub-Saharan Africa, governments should make fish an integral component of inter-sectoral national food security and nutrition programs, with special emphasis on small-scale capture fisheries and fish farming or aquaculture projects. Stakeholders in these fish subsectors should support self-organized local professional organizations and cooperatives, as these strongly contribute to and foster the integration of small-scale operations into markets. State labour, finance, and policy formulation and implementation agencies, in collaboration with fisheries agencies, should improve national regulations for fish workers, including women workers in fish processing factories and markets, ensure that adequate and specific budget allocations are made for small-scale fisheries and aquaculture development, and facilitate the direct involvement of farmers and other stakeholders in the process of priority setting and choice of technology (41).
A food system for the first 6 months of life and beyond
As recommended by the WHO, infants should be given exclusively breastmilk for the first 6 months of life and if possible continue with breastfeeding for up to 2 years or beyond in combination with suitable complementary foods. The interactive food systems implied have numerous dimensions economically, socially, culturally and psychologically in relation to womens lives and rights. While breastfeeding mothers are the primary actors to ensure an ideal and functioning food system in this case, they need support at many levels: near family, practice at delivery wards, community support, workplace allowances, legal protection, etc., to maintain the protective food system needed through these critical first 1,000 days of life. Any government must decide whether it will actively promote and strengthen this critical food system with regard to actively protecting and optimizing nutrient supply to its youngest citizens. The constant and often misleading advertisements of breastmilk substitutes for profit by large multinational companies must be met by strong legal regulations of such marketing and through systematic follow-up. Moreover, the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes and subsequent biannual resolutions should be implemented in national legislations (42). The stakes are high, as Zero Hunger not least demands action for the particularly vulnerable age bracket of 024 months. The issue should therefore no longer be dealt with by health systems and especially primary health care alone as is typical, but be treated alongside other food system challenges in their own right.
Conflicting global and national food policies
Global and national food policies affect food security in both rural and urban Africa. Despite food insecurity generally having been described as a rural issue, the effect of global and national policies on food insecurity is increasingly making it an urban challenge (43). Increased export-driven agriculture by big companies may cause small-scale farmers to sell their farm land and migrate to cities. Thus, the functioning of the food systems is an increasingly central issue for policymakers concerned with the future development of urban areas in Africa (44). Super marketization refers to the fact that big supermarkets have taken over retail shops in many African countries. There are several concerns over the negative impacts of the super marketization of food. They may provide cheaper food, and their contribution to dietary shifts escalates the triple burden of malnutrition (the coexistence of overweight/obesity, undernutrition, and micronutrient deficiencies) (45). The global supermarket is another term reflecting the dominant power of transnational food companies that often control whole food chains from production to retail level. Combined with frequent unethical marketing of ultra-processed unhealthy foods to children and youth, these companies play a role in the global nutrition transition from traditional foods to mote-processed, energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods that contribute to increasing overweight/obesity also in many African countries.
Conflicting agricultural practices
Conflicting agricultural practices and policies have affected progress toward Zero Hunger in Africa. The choice between organic and conventional agriculture may impact health. For example, biofertilizers in conventional farming containing heavy metals have shown an extremely long persistence in the soil environment, leading to metal accumulation (46). In addition, mechanized farms in sub-Saharan Africa may increase gender inequalities especially among rural women in some countries (47). This can be observed in terms of loss of employment for casual laborers, when low-income rural workers are being replaced by mechanization, which in turn threatens their food security and nutritional status. In Zimbabwe and Malawi, reports indicated negative effects of inadequate conservation agriculture (improved soil structure and soil erosion protection) to promote food security among farmers (48). Notably, the majority of rural smallholders are less likely to benefit from mechanization of agriculture. For example, small-scale traditional farmers cannot afford tractors even when they are highly subsidized, which leads to elite capture (31). A case example is Ghana, were it was found that distribution of government-imported tractors was not transparent and encouraged rent-seeking behavior (31). Sadly, the tractor imports were politically more attractive than investing in skills development (49). Tractors showed short-term effects and generated media attention, which was particularly valuable prior to elections just as in many other African countries (31).
Good agricultural practices, including the importance of food security initiatives in school curriculum, are desired, for example, through in situ soil application and utilization of organic waste materials via compost processing (50). This has been shown to enhance soil and plant productivity, increase soil water retention, sequester carbon, and decrease external synthetic fertilizer and chemical inputs. Such an educational model for organic waste-to-resource initiatives is positively associated with food production for long-term sustainability that is in alignment with SDG 2 Zero Hunger (50).
Another conflicting food policy in Africa is the imbalance between agricultural extension/agricultural advisory services in the interest of large commercial producers versus those of family farmers. For example, a recent Ethiopian study identified gaps between digitalizing agricultural extension information services and stakeholders experiences (51).
Population growth
Population growth will greatly increase the amount of food needed to adequately feed Africas people. Despite a fall in fertility rates, the number of children per family in Africa is still much higher than the global average (2.4 children per woman in 2018), and the population is growing. For example, in sub-Saharan countries, the fertility rate has gone from 6.8 children per woman in the 1970s to 4.7 children in 2018 (52). Increasing population pressure in Africa (about 1.2 billion in 2018) has impacts on food security and has worsened land scarcity, land use intensification, and land degradation linked to food insecurity. This together with increased poverty is associated with a stronger tendency to use soil-mining practices, for example, removal of soil conservation structures to use fertile soils within the structures (53). Remarkably, land degradation in combination with population growth continuously leads to increasing food insecurity unless targeted policy interventions for improved food markets and agro-processing technology adoptions are introduced (53).
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic
The COVID-19 pandemic is here singled out as a challenge of its own as it is so thoroughly worsening all the above challenges. This global pandemic has worsened the slow progress to Zero Hunger in Africa. Furthermore, the pandemic has a considerable negative effect on the economic development in Africa. Indeed, lately several households in Africa, with low levels of educational attainment and high dependence on labor income, experience an enormous real income shock that has visibly jeopardized their food security (54). Informal food traders are an essential part of a wider food system going from input suppliers to farmers to the final eaters (55). By far, the informal food sector in Africa is still the highest employer to the young African population and has been greatly disorganised by COVID-19 pandemic. This sector is made up of small-scale owner-operated enterprises (e.g. selling food of various kinds, including street traders, hawkers, street restaurants, etc.) that employs more people than the formal food and grocery sector or even other sectors (55).
